Similarities and Differences in Romanesque and Gothic Architecture

English Gothic Architecture has been broadly divided into periods for the purpose of classifying the styles, the following being the most generally accepted.

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Еxcerpt from the book: A Manual of HISTORIC ORNAMENT TREATING UPON THE EVOLUTION, TRADITION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE AND OTHER APPLIED ARTS. PREPARED FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS AND CRAFTSMEN.
BY RICHARD GLAZIER, Associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects; Head Master of the Municipal School of Art, Manchester, LONDON: 1899

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Most of our magnificent cathedrals were founded A.D. 1066-1170 by Norman bishops, some upon the old Saxon foundations, such as Canterbury and York, or near the original Saxon buildings as at Winchester, or upon new sites such as Norwich and Peterborough, and were without exception more magnificent erections than those of the anterior period, portions of the older style still existing in many cathedrals, showing the fusion of Roman and Byzantine architecture with the more personal and vigorous art of the Celtic, Saxon, and Scandinavian peoples.

The plan, given on next page, of Lincoln Cathedral shows no trace of the apsidial arrangement so universal in Norman and French cathedrals, and is therefore considered a typical English cathedral. 

Each vertical division in the nave, the choir, and transept is termed a bay. On plate 14 is an illustration of four typical bays of English cathedrals, showing the development of style from the 12th to the 15th century. 

THE TRIFORIUM & CLEARSTORY. Plate 14.

The general characteristic of each bay is given separately, but obviously it can only be approximate, as the building of each cathedral was influenced by local considerations, each period necessarily overlapping its predecessor, thus forming a transitional style. For instance, in the choir of Ripon Cathedral, the aisle and clerestory have semi-circular Norman windows and the nave arcading has pointed arches. In the Triforium and Clerestory arcading, round arches are seen side by side with the pointed arch.

The Piers (sometimes termed columns) of these bays have{37} distinctive features which are characteristic of each period of the Gothic development. Sketch plans are here given showing the changes that took place in the shape of the pier from 1066 to 1500. The same general characteristics are observed in the arch mouldings and string courses.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NORMAN PERIOD.

Nave Arcading. 

The universal use of the round arch, cylindrical or rectangular piers with semi-circular shafts attached to each face. Capitals cubical and cushion shaped. Arch mouldings enriched with concentric rows of Chevron and Billet ornament.

Triforium. 

In early work, of one arch. In later work, two or four small arches carried on single shafts under one large semi-circular arch.

Clearstory. 

One window with an open arcading in front, of three arches, the centre one larger and often stilted. This arcade forms a narrow gallery in the thickness of the Clearstory wall. The roof of the nave, of wood, flat and panelled, roof of the aisles, semi-circular quadra partite vaulting.

An arcading of semi-circular arches was usually placed upon the wall, under the aisle windows.

Early windows are narrow, flush with the external wall, and deeply splayed on{38} the inside. Later windows are recessed externally, with jamb shafts and capitals supporting an enriched moulded arch. A few semi-circular rose windows still remain, of which a fine example is to be found in Barfrestone Church, Kent.

EARLY ENGLISH OR LANCET PERIOD.

The Lancet or pointed arch universal.

Capitals, of three lobed foliage and circular abacus. The pier arch mouldings, alternate rounds and hollows deeply cut and enriched with the characteristic dog’s tooth ornament. A hood moulding which terminates in bosses of foliage or sculptured heads invariably surrounds the arch mouldings. This moulded hood when used externally is termed a “Dripstone,” and when used horizontally over a square headed window a “Label.”

The Triforium has a single or double arch, which covers the smaller or subordinate arches, the spandrels being enriched with a sunk or pierced trefoil or quatrefoil. The Triforium piers are solid, having delicate shafts attached to them, carrying arch mouldings of three orders, and enriched with the Dog’s tooth ornament or trefoil foliage.

The Clearstory lancet windows are in triplets, with an arcading on the inner face of the wall. The vaulting shaft occasionally springs from the floor, but more usually from a corbel above the nave capitals, and finishes under the clearstory string with an enriched capital, from which springs the simple vaulting usually quadrapartite or hexapartite in form. Early windows in small churches were arranged in couplets and at the east end, usually in triplets, with grisaille stained glass similar to the example given on the next page from Salisbury Cathedral. The annexed example from the east end of Rievaulx Abbey shows a finely proportioned window and its arrangement.

Figure sculpture, beautiful and refined in treatment, was frequently used upon external walls. The figures of Saints and Bishops were placed singly under triangular pediments and cusped arches, of which there are fine examples at Wells, Lichfield, Exeter, and Salisbury (fig. 5, plate 14). Splendid examples of circular rose windows are to be seen in the north and south transepts of Lincoln Cathedral, also at York, but they are comparatively rare in England, while France possesses over 100 of the finest and most important examples of this type of ecclesiastical adornment. They are to be seen in the Cathedrals of Notre Dame, Rouen, Chartres, and Rheims.

DECORATED OR GEOMETRIC PERIOD.

In this, the piers have engaged shafts with capitals having plain mouldings or enriched with finely carved foliage of the oak, maple, or mallow. The pier arches have mouldings of three orders, also enriched, usually with the characteristic ball flower, or foliage similar to that upon the capitals.

The Triforium consists of double arches, with subordinate cusped arches, adorned with Geometric tracery.

The inner arcading of the Clearstory is absent, the one large window being divided by mullions and geometrical tracery, or by equilateral triangles enriched with circular and bar tracery (fig. 3, plate 14). Above the pier capitals an enriched corbel is usually placed from which springs the vaulting shafts, terminating with a richly carved capital under the Clearstory string.

The aisle arcading, as a rule, is very beautiful, having geometric tracery and finely proportioned mouldings, the aisle windows with mullions and bold geometric tracery. The circular rose windows of the transepts are typical of this period.

PERPENDICULAR AND TUDOR.

The Piers of this style are lofty and enriched with shallow mouldings carried round the pier arch, where capitals are introduced, they frequently resemble a band round the pier at the springing of the arch, or occasionally they are octagonal in form, and decorated with an angular treatment of the vine. In some instances, the upper part of the plain octagonal capital is relieved with an embattlement. The latter is also frequently used as a cresting for the elaborate perpendicular screens, or for relieving the clearstory strings.

The Triforium is absent in this period, the bay consisting of two horizontal divisions only. The Clearstory, owing to the suppression of the Triforium becomes of more importance. The windows are large and often in pairs, with vertical mullions extending to the arch mouldings of the window head. The aisle windows are similar, and when lofty have horizontal transoms, on which the battlement ornament is displayed. The aisle arcading being also suppressed, all plain wall space was covered with perpendicular surface tracery. Enrichment of this type was used in the greatest profusion upon walls, parapets, buttresses, and arches, also upon the jambs and soffits of doorways. This, together with the use of the four-centred arch, forms the characteristic features of the Perpendicular or Tudor period. 

English cathedrals show a marked contrast in scale to contemporary French buildings. The English nave and choir is less in height and width but greater in length than French cathedrals. For instance, Westminster is the highest of our English cathedrals, with its nave and choir 103 ft. from floor to roof, 30 ft. wide, and 505 feet in length. York is next with 101 ft. from floor to roof, 45 ft. wide, and 486 ft. in length. Salisbury is 84 ft. from floor to roof, 32 ft. wide, and 450 ft. in length, and Canterbury 80 ft. from floor to roof, 39 ft. wide, and 514 ft. in length. Lincoln with 82 ft. and Peterborough with 81 ft. are the only other examples reaching 80 ft. in height; York with 45 ft. being the only one reaching above 40 ft. in width of nave.

The measurements of contemporary French cathedrals on the other hand, being as follows:—Chartres, 106 ft. from floor to roof, 46 ft. wide, and 415 ft. in length; Notre Dame, 112 ft. from floor to roof, 46 ft. wide, and 410 ft. in length; Rheims, 123 ft. from floor to roof, 41 ft. wide, and 485 ft. in length, while that at Beauvais reaches the great height of 153 ft. in the nave, 45 ft. in width, and only 263 ft. in length.

The remarkable growth of the Gothic style during the 13th and 14th centuries was contemporary in England, France, Flanders, Germany, and in a less degree in Italy. One of the most beautiful churches in Italy, is, S. Maria della Spina, at Pisa, with its rich crocketed spires and canopies, features which were repeated a little later at the tomb of the famous Scaligers at Verona. At Venice, the Gothic is differentiated by the use of the ogee arch with cusps and pierced quatrefoils. It was in France and England where Gothic architecture reached its culmination; the abbeys and cathedrals, with pinnacles, spires, and towers, enriched with the most vigorous and beautiful sculpture; the arcadings and canopies with crockets, finials, and cusps, vibrating with interest and details, and the splendid windows filled with glorious coloured glass, are all tributes to the religious zeal and splendid craftsmanship of the middle ages.

On the opposite page are illustrations showing the modifications that took place in the evolution of church architecture from the 12th to the 15th century. The triforium in the Norman period was fundamental, but in the Perpendicular period this feature was absent. The change of style may also be observed in the windows of each bay, from the simple Norman one (fig. 1) to the vertical mullioned 15th century window, figs. 4 and 8.

NORMAN DETAILS

Norman architecture was distinguished by the use of the traditional semi-circular arch, superseded by the pointed arch of the early Gothic period. These semi-circular arches in the earlier dates were decorated with rudely executed carvings, cut or worked with the axe. Later Norman work is very rich, the mouldings being well carved with enrichments of the Chevron, the Cable Pallet, Star, Fret or Key Patterns; the lozenge and the beading or pearling. 

Characteristic features of this period also are the beak-head (fig. 5) and the corbel-table, which was a series of heads of men or animals, from which spring small arches supporting the parapet. Many rich examples of Norman surface ornament are still extant; at Christchurch, Hants, a beautiful intersecting arcading of semi-circular arches occurs, the enrichment above being a scale or imbricated pattern; at St. Peter’s, Northampton, a very rich example of surface ornamentation may be seen (fig 6).

Floral forms are but rarely used in Norman ornament; instances are known of the use of the rose and the fir-apple, but they are the exception and not the rule.

Early doorways usually have a square head recessed under semi-circular arch mouldings, decorated with the Chevron, Key, or Beak-head. The semi-circular Tympanum over the door was plain or enriched with rude sculpture in low relief. Later doors show a great profusion of ornament in the archivolt and arch mouldings, which are often carried down the jamb mouldings. The recessed columns are also enriched with the Chevron, or diagonal lines of pearling (fig. 1), and have sculptured capitals showing a classical tendency in the arrangement of acanthus foliage and the volute. Fine examples of this period may be seen in the west front of Lincoln Cathedral (fig. 1), the Galilee porch at Durham, and the west door of Iffley Church, Oxfordshire.

The Norman capitals are usually cushion-shaped, with a square abacus, enriched with the Chevron, star pattern, or the anthemion (fig. 9). The capital itself was decorated with the anthemion, or with rude volutes or segments of circles.

The architecture of this period in France, differing from contemporary work in England, shows a strong Roman influence, hence its name—Romanesque. St. Trophine at Arles is a fine example of this style, beautiful in its proportions and vigorous in detail. The west front of Angouleme Cathedral, with its profusion of semi-circular arcading, displays more affinity to contemporary work in England. In the two French capitals (figs. 9 and 10) a characteristic treatment of animals and birds may be seen, showing a strong vitality in the ornamental art of that period.

EARLY GOTHIC DETAILS

The Norman style was succeeded by the pointed, or Gothic style, remarkable for its variety, its beauty of proportion, and the singular grace and vigour of its ornament. Showing no traditions, beyond Sicilian and Arabian influence, it grew rapidly, and reached a high degree of perfection in France and England. 

The massive and barbaric character of the Norman style gave place to the light clustered shafts and well-proportioned mouldings of the early English Gothic, with its capitals characterized by a circular abacus, and the typical three-lobed foliage growing upwards from the necking of the shafts, thence spreading out in beautiful curves and spirals under the abacus. 

This tendency to the spiral line is peculiar to the early Gothic, and differentiates it from the Decorated and Perpendicular Period. The diagrams of the three crockets here given show the distinctive character of English Gothic ornament.

A. Early Gothic, three lobed leaves arranged in spiral lines. 

B. Decorated Gothic, with natural types of foliage, such as the oak and maple, with a flowing indulating line. 

C. Perpendicular Gothic, showing the vine and leaves as elements, and arranged in a square and angular manner. The same features and characteristics are observed in the borders here given.

The beautiful carved spandril from the stone church, Kent (fig. 1), is remarkable for the vigour and flexibility of curve, its recurring forms of ornamentation, and admirable spacing, typical of much of our early English foliage.

The type of foliage in early English stained glass is somewhat similar to contemporary carved work, but showing more of the profile of the leaf, and it has a geometric or radiating arrangement in addition to the spiral forms of foliage.

Early French work (figs. 7 and 8), with its square abacus, differs from the early English, in having less of the spiral arrangement, and a rounder type of leaf, together with the absence of the mid rib, which is so characteristic of contemporary early English Gothic. The plain moulded capitals so prevalent in this country are rarely found in France.

DECORATED AND PERPENDICULAR

GOTHIC DETAILS. Plate 17.

DECORATED & PERPENDICULAR GOTHIC DETAILS

Decorated Gothic is remarkable for its geometric tracery, its natural types of foliage, and the undulating character of line and form in its ornamental details. The foliage of the oak, the vine, the maple, the rose, and the ivy were introduced in much luxuriance and profusion, being carved with great delicacy and accuracy. Lacking the dignity and architectonic qualities of the early Gothic foliage, it surpassed it in brilliancy and inventiveness of detail. The Capitals, enriched with adaptations from nature, carved with admirable precision, were simply attached round the bell, giving variety and charm of modelling, but lacking that architectonic unity which was so characteristic of early work.

Diaper work, crockets and finials, introduced in the early English, were now treated with exceeding richness, and used in great profusion. The ball flower so characteristic of the Decorated period replaced the equally characteristic tooth enrichment of the preceding style.

French Contemporary Work has similar characteristics, but displays more reserve and affinity for architectural forms.

This brilliant Decorated period reached its culminating point within half a century and then rapidly gave place to the Perpendicular Style, with its distinctive vertical bar tracery of windows and surface paneling, and the prevalent use of the four centered arch—of octagonal capitals enriched with the angular treatment of the vine,—of heraldic shields and arms, and of the four-leaved flower; all typical of the period.

Byzantine art - Characteristics of Byzantine Ornaments

When the Emperor Constantine, removed the seat of Government from Rome to Byzantium, in the year A.D. 330, he inaugurated a new era in art, viz.: the Byzantine. 

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Еxcerpt from the book: A Manual of HISTORIC ORNAMENT TREATING UPON THE EVOLUTION, TRADITION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE AND OTHER APPLIED ARTS. PREPARED FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS AND CRAFTSMEN.

BY RICHARD GLAZIER, Associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects; Head Master of the Municipal School of Art, Manchester, LONDON: 1899

Original Title of the chapter - Byzantine Ornaments 

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The traditional Greek and Roman arts were now assimilated with the arts of Persia and Syria, but moulded and influenced by the new religion, giving the strong personal vitality, deep significance and symbolism which was so remarkable throughout the Byzantine period.

The change of style did not take place immediately, for most of the buildings erected by Constantine were in the traditional Roman style, but the arts were gradually perfected until they culminated in the building of S. Sophia by Anthemius of Tralles, and Isidorus of Miletus, during the reign of Justinian, A.D. 538. 

This building is remarkable for its splendid dome, supported by semi-domes and pendentives on a square plan, its embellishment with mosaics of glorious colours, and the great inventiveness and symbolism of the detail. The traditional sharp acanthus foliage of the Greeks was united with the emblems of Christianity such as the circle, the cross, the vine, and the dove; the peacock also is frequently seen. 

Figure sculpture was rarely used, but groups of figures were used in great profusion in the gold ground mosaics that covered the upper part of the walls and the vaults and domes of the magnificent Byzantine buildings. The churches of Ravenna in Italy, have somewhat similar characteristics; S. Vitale, the basilica churches of S. Apollinare Nuovo, A.D. 493-525, S. Apollinare in Classe, A.D. 538-44, together with the Baptisteries are rich in mosaics and sculptured capitals of the 6th and 7th centuries. In the cathedrals of Torcello, A.D. 670, and Murano and the beautiful St. Mark’s at Venice, marbles and mosaics were used in great profusion. The two sketch plans here given are typical of Byzantine planning in which the symbolism of the circle and cross are used as constructive features. 

This symbolism is a marked feature in Byzantine ornament; interlacing circles and crosses mingle with the acanthus or the vine, and are cut with a peculiar V-shaped section. The circular drill is largely used at the sinking of the leaves, and but little of the background is visible in the sculptured ornament of this period.

Pompeian ornaments - Pompeian Wall Art

Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabia, Roman cities, were buried by an eruption of Vesuvius in the year A.D. 79. These cities had already suffered from an earthquake in A.D. 63, and were being rapidly rebuilt when they were finally destroyed by the eruption.

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Еxcerpt from the book: A Manual of HISTORIC ORNAMENT TREATING UPON THE EVOLUTION, TRADITION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE AND OTHER APPLIED ARTS. PREPARED FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS AND CRAFTSMEN.

BY RICHARD GLAZIER, Associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects; Head Master of the Municipal School of Art, Manchester, LONDON: 1899

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The younger Pliny, the historian, was a spectator of the event at Pompeii, and wrote two letters to his friend Tacitus, describing the event and his flight from the doomed city, which remained buried for seventeen centuries, with the treasures of gold and silver, bronzes of rare workmanship, mural paintings on a most magnificent scale, and floors of mosaics of marvelous execution and design; everything affording a vivid glimpse of the domestic and public life of the Romans of the 1st century A.D. 

Herculaneum was discovered in 1709, and Pompeii in 1748 A.D., and from these cities many valuable remains of art have been taken. In the museum at Naples there are over 1,000 mural paintings, some 13,000 small bronzes, over 150 large bronzes of figures and busts, 70 fine large mosaics, together with a splendid collection of marble statuary.

A plan of a Roman house is given on page 23 showing the arrangement of and use of the rooms. The floors covered with mosaics, those of the vestibule, corridors, and small rooms having simple patterns enclosed with borders of the key pattern, or the Guilloche in black, red, grey, and white tesserie. The triclinium, or dining room floor was often a magnificent mosaic representing some mythological or classic subject. The walls were painted in color, usually with a dado ⅙th the height of the wall, with pilasters dividing the wall into rectangular panels and a frieze above (plate 10). 

The general scheme of color was, the dado and pilasters black, the panels red, and the frieze white; or black dado, red pilasters and frieze, with white or yellow panels. The decorations upon these various coloured grounds was light and fanciful, and painted with great delicacy. Representations of architectural forms, such as columns and entablatures, are often rendered in perspective upon the painted walls. A small panel painted with a classical subject usually occupies the center of each wall panel.

The painted ornament has somewhat the same characteristics as the Roman relief work, but is usually much more delicate in treatment. The spiral form and the sheath are always prevalent and from these sheaths and cups grow the finer tendrils or delicately painted spray of foliage, upon which birds are placed.

Stucco enrichments, such as ornamental string courses and mouldings, were frequently combined with the painted ornament; they consist of small details, such as the water-leaf, the egg and dart, and the anthemion, and are repeated in a regular series.

Roman Architecture Ornaments - Some characteristics of Roman architecture

Roman architecture and ornament represent one of the most influential traditions in the history of Western art and architecture. Drawing upon the artistic achievements of the Greeks, Etruscans, Samnites, and other cultures absorbed through Rome’s expansion, Roman craftsmen developed a distinctive decorative style characterized by monumental scale, vigorous carving, elaborate foliage, and richly developed architectural details.

Roman architectural ornament is especially recognizable for its extensive use of the acanthus leaf, continuous scroll, anthemion, rosette, festoon, egg-and-dart molding, coffers, and figurative decoration. These motifs appeared across temples, basilicas, forums, baths, tombs, ceilings, friezes, columns, sarcophagi, and other architectural elements. Compared with the restraint and refinement associated with Greek ornament, Roman decoration often favored greater richness, complexity, and visual exuberance.

The following historical account, taken from Richard Glazier’s A Manual of Historic Ornament, published in London in 1899, examines the origins, characteristics, and development of Roman ornament, showing how Roman artists assimilated earlier traditions and transformed them into a powerful and highly elaborate decorative language.

The original chapter is titled “Roman Ornament” and provides a valuable historical description of the ornamental forms, architectural features, and decorative craftsmanship associated with ancient Rome.

Roman Architecture and Ornamental Design

Еxcerpt from the book: A Manual of HISTORIC ORNAMENT TREATING UPON THE EVOLUTION, TRADITION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE AND OTHER APPLIED ARTS. PREPARED FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS AND CRAFTSMEN.

BY RICHARD GLAZIER, Associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects; Head Master of the Municipal School of Art, Manchester, LONDON: 1899

Original Title of the chapter - ROMAN ORNAMENT.

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Rome, founded by Romulus, B.C. 783, became by successive wars and conquests the mistress of the world, absorbing the arts and the architecture of the Etruscans B.C. 567, the Samnites B.C. 340, and of Corinth and Carthage B.C. 146. 

From these varied sources arose the style termed Roman, assimilating and adopting the column and the horizontal entablature of the Greeks; the arch, the vault, the mural paintings and the decorative use of bronze and the terra-cotta of the Etruscans, with the sculpture, ornament, mosaics and coinage of the Greeks and Carthaginians. These varied arts were assimilated and perfected by the Romans during the period B.C. 100 to 337 A.D.

Roman ornament is the continuity of the Greek and Etruscan styles, consisting of the anthemion, the acanthus and the scroll; the Romans using these forms with greater exuberance and elaboration, together with bold and vigorous carving, yet lacking the simplicity, refinement and graceful contour of the Greek and Etruscan forms.

Roman ornament consists largely of continuous spiral lines clothed with cups and sheaths of acanthus foliage, the various spirals terminating in a rosette. These main spirals are frequently interwoven with fine curved or spiral lines, clothed with acanthus or other foliation, such as the vine, olive and ivy. Birds and reptiles and cupids, and the chimera or griffin (fig. 1) are often interspersed with the ornament, thus giving that largeness of mass and contrast of form which is so characteristic of Roman art.

The Thermæ, or baths and public buildings, displayed fine decorative ceilings, having deep sunk panels called Lacunaria; or coffers, square, hexagonal or octagonal in form, with a center rosette in high relief and the border moldings of the coffers being enriched with the egg and dart or the water leaf. These exhibit an effective treatment of molded surfaces. The ceilings of the tombs and palaces were in many cases ornamented with circular and square panels, richly decorated with arabesques or mythical figures, and cupids in low relief of fine stucco; the moldings or divisions in higher relief, and having the water leaf or the egg and dart enrichment (Plate 9.)

The architectural frieze and the sepulchral urn and sarcophagi of this period were often decorated with festoons (figs. 4 and 5, plate 9), and were supported by cupids or by candelabra (plate 9), or by the skulls of oxen, as on the frieze from the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli, here given, which is no doubt a survival of the sacrificial custom of worship.

Тhe architectural basilica and forum of Trajan, erected A.D. 114, by Apollodorus, a Greek of Damascus, was of the utmost magnificence, the remains attesting to the skill and artistic craftsmanship of the Romans. Apollodorus also erected the marble column of Trajan, having a rectangular pedestal 18 feet high, and richly sculptured with the dresses, armour and standards of the Roman army. This pedestal supports a column of the Tuscan order of architecture 97¼ feet high and 12 feet in diameter, enriched with a series of spiral bands, having bas-reliefs representing the successive events of the Dacian War by the Emperor Trajan.

This magnificent and well preserved relic of antiquity furnishes a complete epitome of the costumes and the arms and armor of that period. Another well-preserved column, similar to that of Trajan, was erected in Rome by Marcus Aurelius A.D. 174, the subjects of its reliefs being the war with the Marcomans. Large marble urns, or Tazzas, enriched with Bacchanalian figures, surrounded with foliage and birds and animals; magnificent tables, chairs, couches, and candelabra, of bronze, enriched with silver damascening, together with the choice remains of sculpture and mosaics, all indicate the luxuriousness and love of magnificence of the wealthy Roman citizens.

In Roman architectural ornament we see the most powerful modelling combined with the use of the continuous scroll growing from a nest of foliage, repeated in their painted decorations (see Pompeian). This elaboration of the typical Greek ornamentation and the rounded serrations of the Acanthus, forms the chief characteristic of Roman ornament, which is wonderfully bold, and vigorous in conception and execution, but deficient in the refinement and delicacy of Greek art.

What are some characteristics of Roman architecture? - Ancient Roman Architecture Examples

Roman Architecture is differentiated from that of Greece by the extensive use of the arch and of superposed orders. 

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Еxcerpt from the book: A Manual of HISTORIC ORNAMENT TREATING UPON THE EVOLUTION, TRADITION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE AND OTHER APPLIED ARTS. PREPARED FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS AND CRAFTSMEN.
BY RICHARD GLAZIER, Associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects; Head Master of the Municipal School of Art, Manchester, LONDON: 1899

Original Title of the chapter - Roman Architecture

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The many fine remains of Roman temples and public buildings show the extraordinary versatility and conception of the Roman architects, their constructive skill, and their remarkable power of assimilating the arts of other nations. The Roman temples were somewhat similar in plan to the Greek prototypes, but usually without the side colonnade, larger in scale, and with an ostentatious display of moldings and ornament, less refined in contour and detail.

A typical example is given here of a triumphal arch, namely, that of Septimus Severus, A.D. 211. Other examples are the Arch of Titus, A.D. 79, and the Arch of Constantine, A.D. 326. Trajan’s Arch, A.D. 114, was destroyed by Constantine, who used many of the reliefs for the building of his own arch.

The superposition of columns and arches is shown in the annexed illustration from the Theatre of Marcellus, where the lower order is of the Doric and the upper of the Ionic. The Colosseum has a third story, having the Corinthian order, and an attic story, with Corinthian pilasters; the whole reaching to a height of 156 feet.

One of the best preserved buildings of the Roman period is the Pantheon, with its fine domed ceiling of coffered panels, enriched with bronze ornaments. The portico, octastyle and di-prostyle, is of the Corinthian order, beautifully proportioned and enriched. The finest example of the Corinthian order was used in the temple of Castor and Pollux, frequently called Jupiter Stator; some 50 examples of this Corinthian order date from the Roman period. The Tuscan and Composite orders were added by the Romans to the Doric, Ionic and the Corinthian, forming the five orders of architecture.

The following table gives the relative proportions of the typical Roman orders, the columns in modules, and the capital, entablature, &c., in parts:—

		Columns.	Capital.	Architrave.	Frieze.	Cornice.	Entablature.
Doric.	Theatre of Marcellus	15½	24	31	46	37	113
	Baths of Diocletian	16	22	32	45	46	123
Ionic.	Theatre of Marcellus	18	31	43	36	66	145
	Temple of Virilis	17½	33¾	38	28	70	137
Corinthian.	Jupiter Stator	20	66	43	43	69	156
	Pantheon	19½	67	42	39	54	136

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The Romans rarely used the peristyle temple, consequently the cellar was of the same width as the portico. In the civic buildings and palaces the Romans show the greatest constructive skill and splendor of embellishment. The skillful planning and appropriateness of decorative treatment in their basilicas and amphitheaters are evidences of the practical nature of the Romans.

The Basilica or Hall of Justice was an important architectural feature, rectangular in plan, with a semi-circular apse at one end, where the Tribunal was placed; roofed with timber framing, or vaulted with concrete, and supported with rows of columns or biers. The remains of two typical Roman basilicas are still in existence: the Basilica of Trajan, A.D. 114, rectangular, 180 × 160 feet, five aisles, the centre aisle with a semi-circular wooden roof, and enriched with bronze plates, is typical of one class; and the basilica of Maxentinus, A.D. 310, with a width of 195 feet and a length of 260 feet, is typical of a vaulted Basilica, the two side aisles with an arched roof, and the centre aisle with an intersecting vaulted roof.

These Roman basilicas were adopted by the early Christians to their service, and the basilica church was the typical form used up to the 12th century in the Romanesque provinces.

The Roman houses were of two types: the Domus, or houses clustered together, and the Insular, houses which were surrounded by streets. Most of the finest Pompeian houses were of the Insular type.

The usual plan of a Roman house consisted of the Ostium or entrance, sometimes called the Vestibule, which opened into the Atrium, which was a large room or court partly roofed over, with an opening in the center called the Conpluvium, under which was the Impluvium, or cistern of water, placed below the level of the ground. Small chambers surrounded the Atrium, and at the further end was the Tablinum or private room, frequently leading to the Peristylium or private part of the house, an open court, with a colonnade surrounding a marble fountain, with flowers, shrubs and trees, forming a Viridarium. Surrounding the Peristylium were private rooms, one of which was the Triclinium or dining room. From the Peristylium, fauces or passages led to the Porticus, a colonnade which overlooked the garden.

Ancient Greek Ornaments - Symbols & Meanings

Greece, or Hellas, consisted of a number of small states, speaking the same language, and worshipping the same gods. Almost the whole of the Ægean coast of Asia Minor was occupied in early times by Greek Colonies, which supplanted those of the Phœnicians of Tyre and Sidon.

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Original Title - GREEK ORNAMENT
Еxcerpt from the book: A Manual of HISTORIC ORNAMENT TREATING UPON THE EVOLUTION, TRADITION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE AND OTHER APPLIED ARTS. PREPARED FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS AND CRAFTSMEN.
BY RICHARD GLAZIER, Associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects; Head Master of the Municipal School of Art, Manchester, LONDON: 1899

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The southern portion of this seaboard was occupied by the Dorians, and the northern by Ionians. In the course of time other Greek settlements were made on the Black Sea and Mediterranean Coast of Asia Minor; as well as at Syracuse, Gela and Agrigentum, in Sicily, and in Etruria and Magna Grecia in Italy. 

These colonies appear to have reached a higher state of art at an early period than Greece itself. 

The ascendency in art in Greece was enjoyed by the Dorians circa, 800 B.C.; after which Sparta took the lead, but was in turn excelled by the Ionians, when Athens became the focus of Greek art, and attained a degree of perfection in that respect that has remained unequalled to this day. Athens was destroyed by the Persians under Xerxes, 480 B.C.; but under Pericles (470-29 B.C.) Greek art reached its culmination.

The abundant, although fragmentary, remains of Grecian architecture, sculpture, and the industrial arts, show most vividly the artistic feeling and culture of the early Greeks, with their great personality and religious sentiment, in which the personal interest of the gods and goddesses was brought into relation with the life and customs of the people. 

Their myths and traditions, their worship of legendary heroes, the perfection of their physical nature, and their intense love of the beautiful, were characteristic of the Greek people, from the siege of Troy to their subjection by Rome, B.C. 140. 

The almost inexhaustible store of Greek art, now gathered in the British Museum, and in other European museums, furnishes one of the most valuable illustrations of the many glorious traditions of the past. The vitality of conception, the dignity and noble grace of the gods, the consummate knowledge of the human figure, and the exquisite skill of craftsmanship, are here seen in the greatest diversity of treatment and incident.

The work of Phidias, the most renowned of Greek sculptors, is largely represented in the British Museum by noble examples, showing his great personality, wonderful power, and his remarkable influence, upon contemporary and later plastic art.

The Parthenon, or temple of the goddess Athene, which was built upon the Acropolis at Athens by Ictinus and Callicrates, B.C. 454-438, was enriched with splendid works of sculpture by Phidias. Many of the originals are now in the British Museum, forming part of the Elgin Marbles, which were purchased from the Earl of Elgin, in 1815. 

The two pediments of the temple contained figure sculpture in the round, larger than life size. The Eastern group represents the birth of Athene, and the western group the contest of Athene and Poseidon for the soil of Attica.{14} The fragments of these pedimental groups are now in the British Museum, and, though sadly mutilated, show the perfection of sculpture during the Phidian age.Image unavailable. 

An illustration of the “Fates” from the Western pediment is given here, showing a perfect mastery of the human figure, with rare selective power of composition. The appropriateness of line and mass for its position renders it singularly beautiful and architectonic in character. 

Of the 92 square metopes sculptured in high relief, that enriched the Doric frieze, 15 are included in the Elgin Marbles. The subject represented on these metopes was the battle between the Centaurs and Lapithæ, or Greeks, and are fine examples of composition of line and mass, and dramatic power of expression.

The continuous frieze upon the upper part of the cella wall, under the colonnade or Peristyle, was 40 feet from the ground, 40 inches in height, and 523 feet in length. It was carved in low relief, the subject being the Panathenæic procession, the most sacred and splendid of the religious festivals of the Ancient Greeks. This frieze, with its rhythm of movement and unity of composition, its groups of beautiful youths and maidens, sons and daughters of noble citizens, its heroes and deities, heralds and magistrates; its sacrificial oxen, and its horses and riders are doubtless the most perfect production of the sculptor’s art. Each figure is full of life and motion, admirable in detail, having an individuality of action and expression, yet with a unity of composition, appropriate to its architectural purpose as a frieze or band.{15}

The Parthenon, however, was but the shrine of the standing figure or statue of the goddess Athene, which was 37 feet high, and formed of plates of gold and ivory, termed Chryselephantine sculpture. Probably owing to the intrinsic value of the material, this work of Phidias disappeared at an early date.

Among the examples of sculptured marbles in the British Museum is the beautiful frieze from the interior of the Temple of Apollo at Phigaleia, erected by Ictinus, B.C. 450-430. This frieze, which shows an extraordinary vitality and movement, is 101 feet long, and consists of 23 slabs 25½ inches in width, the incidents depicted being the battle of the Greeks and the Amazons, and the contest between the Centaurs and the Lapithæ. The dignity and reserve of the Parthenon frieze is here replaced by activity and energy of line and an exuberance of modelling.

Some of the marbles in the British Museum are from the Nereid Monument of Xanthos, B.C. 372, so called because the female figures display moist clinging garments, and have fishes and seabirds between their feet. These sculptures show a high degree of perfection, and were probably the work of the Athenian sculptor, Bryaxis.

Among other examples of the Greek treatment of the frieze, is that of the Erectheum, B.C. 409, with its black Eleusinian stone background, and white marble reliefs. The Temple of Nike Apteros,{16} of about the same date is noted for the beautiful reliefs from the balustrade which crowned the lofty bastion on which the temple stands. An example of Nike or victory, adjusting her sandal is here given. 

These reliefs are remarkable for their delicacy and refinement of treatment, and the exquisite rendering of the draped female figure. Other friezes now in the British Museum are from the Mausoleum erected by Artemisia to her husband Mausolus B.C. 357-348. This tomb consisted of a solid basement of masonry, supporting a cella surrounded by a colonnade of 36 columns. The upper part of the basement was enriched with a frieze, illustrating the battle of the Centaurs and Lapithæ; the frieze of the cella was illustrated with funeral games in honour of Mausolus. Seventeen slabs of the frieze of the order from the colonnade are in the British Museum; they represent the battle of the Greeks and Amazons. In their composition these slabs show extraordinary energy of movement and richness of invention. This frieze differs absolutely from the Parthenon frieze in its fertility of incident and intensity of action. Bryaxis, the sculptor of the Nereid monument executed the north frieze, while the south was by Timotheus, the east by Scopas, and the west by Leochares.

A remarkable building, where again the frieze was an important feature, was the great altar at Pergamos, erected by Eumenes II., B.C. 168. This had a basement of masonry 160 ft. by 160 ft., and 16 ft. high, enriched with a sculptured frieze 7½ ft. high. The subject is the Gigantomachia, or battle of the gods and giants; the treatment being characterized by passionate energy and expression, and daring skill in grouping and technique. Ninety-four of the original slabs of this frieze are now in the Berlin Museum. 

The frieze was an important decorative feature with the Assyrians and Greeks. The continuity of incident and rhythm of movement that was possible with the continuous frieze, together with its functional use of banding, no doubt tended to preserve its traditional form, hence we have many remains from antiquity of this beautiful decorative treatment. An early and fine example is the frieze of Archers from the palace of Darius at Persepolis, B.C. 532, now in the{17} Louvre. This frieze, of which an illustration is here given, was executed in glazed and enameled bricks. A dignity of conception and unity of composition were here combined with skillful modelling of relief work, and fine coloring of blue, turquoise and yellow. This treatment of the frieze no doubt influenced the later work of the Greeks, who so nobly carried on this tradition of the frieze.

Greek ornament is distinguished by simplicity of line, refinement of detail, radiation of parts, unity of composition and perfect symmetry. The anthemion, which is the typical form, is derived from the traditional lotus and bud of Egypt, Assyria, and India. It differs however in its more abstract rendering and its absence of symbolism, having a charm of composition and a unity and balance of parts, yet lacking that interest and deeper significance associated with many periods of art.

The anthemion was sculptured upon the top of the funeral stele, (figs. 1, 2, and 5, plate 4), upon the architrave of doorways (fig. 6), and above the necking of the Ionic columns (plate 6); or painted upon the panels of the deep coffered ceilings. It was also used in a thousand ways upon the many fine vases and other ceramic wares of that period. 

GREEK ORNAMENT. Plate 6.

The simplicity and beauty of the anthemion and its ready adaptability, has doubtless rendered it one of the best known types of ornament. Like the Egyptian and Assyrian prototype the Greek anthemion is usually arranged with alternate flower and bud, connected by a curved line or more frequently by a double spiral. Illustrations are given on the opposite plate of a few typical examples, where the rhythm and beauty of composition are indicative of the culture and perfection of Greek craftsmanship.

Another feature, which at a later period received considerable development, was the scroll given on the preceding page, which is a fine example from the roof of the monument to Lysicrates. The scroll cut with V shaped sections, springs from a nest of sharp acanthus foliage, the same features being observed in the nest of foliage which supports the tripod upon the apex of the roof (plate 6). This scroll is formed of a series of spirals springing from each other, the junction of the spiral being covered by a sheath or flower; the spiral itself being often broken by a similar sheath.

This spiral form, with its sheathing, is the basis of the Roman and Italian Renascence styles, and sharply differentiates them from the Gothic ornament, in which the construction line is continuous and unbroken.

The rosette, a survival of the traditional Assyrian form was frequently used upon the architrave (fig. 6), and the funeral stele (fig. 5 plate 5) where its circular and radiating form contrasts so beautifully with the functional straight lines of architectural design. The extraordinary vitality and versatility of the Greek craftsmen may be traced through a magnificent series of coins dating from B.C. 700 to B.C. 280. The interest of subject, beauty of composition and largeness of style, combined with the utmost delicacy of technique, of these gold, silver and electrum coins are a reflex on the artistic feeling for beauty of the early Greeks.

What were some characteristics of Greek architecture and art? - Ancient Greek Architecture

GREEK ARCHITECTURE - Classic or columnar architecture is divided into the Greek and Roman styles, and each style comprises several orders of architecture; the Grecian orders are the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian, and many examples of each of these orders are still extant in Greece and her colonies:—Asia Minor, Southern Italy, and Sicily. 

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Еxcerpt from the book: A Manual of HISTORIC ORNAMENT TREATING UPON THE EVOLUTION, TRADITION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE AND OTHER APPLIED ARTS. PREPARED FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS AND CRAFTSMEN.
BY RICHARD GLAZIER, Associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects; Head Master of the Municipal School of Art, Manchester, LONDON: 1899

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From a comparison of these buildings certain constructive and decorative features are observed to be present, and thence they are considered as the characteristics of the style or order, which comprises the base, (except in the Grecian Doric, which has no base) column and capital, and the Entablature, which consists of the Architrave, Frieze, and Cornice. 

The proportions of these orders are generally determined by the lower diameter of the column which is divided into 2 modules or 60 parts; the height of the column always including the base and capital. 

The DORIC order was used for the early Greek temples from B.C. 600 and culminated in the Parthenon B.C. 438. The Columns in this order are 4½ to 6 diameters in height with 20 shallow flutings with intermediate sharp arrises; the Capital is half a diameter in height and is composed of an echinus or ovolo moulding with annulets or deep channellings below, and a large square abacus above. The Architrave is plain; the Frieze is enriched by rectangular blocks, with 3 vertical channellings in the face, termed triglyphs, alternately with square metopes which were frequently sculptured. The Cornice, composed of simple mouldings, and enriched with mutules over the centre of the triglyphs and metopes, projects considerably beyond the face of the frieze.

The IONIC order has columns of from 9 to 9½ diameters in height, with 24 flutings divided by narrow fillets; the base is half a diameter in height and composed of a plinth, torus, fillet, cavetto, fillet, torus, and fillet. The Capital is 7/10 of a diameter high and consists of a pair of double scrolls or volutes, supported by an echinus moulding enriched with the egg and tongue, with an astragal below.

The Entablature is ¼ the height of the columns, the Architrave of one or more fascias, the Frieze continuous and frequently enriched with sculpture in low relief; the Cornice has simple and compound mouldings supported by a dentil band. Caryatides were occasionally introduced into this order; they were female figures clad in drapery having vertical folds which re-echoed the flutings of the Ionic column. These caryatides supported the entablature in place of the columns; a beautiful example of this feature is the south portico of the Erechtheum at Athens.{10}

The CORINTHIAN order was not much used by the Greeks; the examples however show considerable refinement and delicacy of details. The Columns are 10 diameters in height with 24 flutings; the Base is ½ diameter high; the Capital is a little greater than a diameter in height and is enriched with acanthus foliations and spiral volutes. The Entablature is richer; and the Cornice deeper and more elaborate than those of the other orders.

A table is here given showing the relative height in parts (a part is 1/60 of the diameter) of the entablature in some typical Grecian examples.

		Architrave	Frieze	Cornice	Total Entablature
Doric	Parthenon	43	43	32	118
	Theseus	50	48	19	107
Ionic	Erechtheum	43	48	47	140
	Priene	37	49	47	133
Corinthian	Lysicrates	53	41	49	143
	Jupiter Olympius	40	26	46	112

The principal Doric buildings in Greece are:—The Temples at Corinth B.C. 650, Ægina B.C. 550, the Parthenon and the Theseum B.C. 438, the Temples of Jupiter at Olympia, Apollo Epicurius at Bassæ B.C. 436, Minerva at Sunium, and the Propylæa at Athens B.C. 431. The Parthenon is the only octastyle temple in Greece.

Ionic buildings in Greece are:—Temples at Ilyssus, Nike Apteros, and the Erectheum. In Asia Minor, the Temples at Samos, Priene, Teos, and of Diana at Ephesus, and of Apollo at Miletos.

Image unavailable.

Corinthian buildings in Greece are:—Monument of Lysicrates, the Tower of Winds, and Jupiter Olympius, all in Athens.

During the 5th century B.C. the Doric order was extensively used in the Greek colonies of Sicily. At Acragas or Agrigentum the remains of 6 fine hexastyle and peripteral Doric Temples are found, of which the Temple of Zeus B.C. 450 is the largest, being 354 by 173 feet. In this temple were found the Telemones or Atlantes, male figures 25 feet in height, with their arms raised, probably supporting the roof of the temple.

At Selinus there are six large Doric temples, five being hexastyle and peripteral, the other octastyle and pseudo-dipteral, 372 by 175 feet. This temple has columns 57 feet in height with an entablature of 19 feet. At Egesta, there is a hexastyle, peripteral, Doric{11} temple with the columns not fluted, and at Pæstum in Southern Italy there are two Doric temples, the temple of Neptune, and the temple of Vesta, of the usual hexastyle and peripteral form, but the Basilica is pseudo-dipteral and is remarkable for its two porticos of nine columns each. All these buildings in Sicily and Pæstum date between B.C. 500 and 430.

Classification of Classic Temples:—

1st.	The arrangements of the columns and walls
	(a) When the side walls have no colonnade	Apteral
	(b) When there is a colonnade standing apart from the side walls	Peripteral
	(c) When the colonnade is attached to the side of the side walls	Pseudo-peripteral
	(d) When there is a double colonnade standing from the wall	Dipteral
2nd.	The relation of the ends of the temple
	(a) When the columns do not project beyond the walls	In Antis
	(b) When a portico stood in front of the temple	Prostyle
	(c) When there was a portico at each end	Amphi-prostyle
	(d) If the portico was one column in depth	Mono-prostyle
	(e) If the portico was two columns in depth	Di-prostyle
3rd.	The number of columns in the portico
	(a) If of 2 columns	Distyle
	(b) If of 4 columns	Tetrastyle
	(c) If of 6 columns	Hexastyle
	(d) If of 8 columns	Octastyle
4th.	The Intercolumniation
	(a) If 1½ diameters apart	Pycnostyle
	(b) If 2 diameters apart	Systyle
	(c) If 2¼ diameters apart	Eustyle
	(d) If 3 diameters apart	Diastyle
	(e) If 4 diameters apart	Ærostyle

Assyrian Art and Architecture - Assyrian Ornaments

The early history of Babylonia and Assyria is one long series of wars and conquests.

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Еxcerpt from the book: A Manual of HISTORIC ORNAMENT TREATING UPON THE EVOLUTION, TRADITION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE AND OTHER APPLIED ARTS. PREPARED FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS AND CRAFTSMEN.
BY RICHARD GLAZIER, Associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects; Head Master of the Municipal School of Art, Manchester, LONDON: 1899

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Originally one nation, they became divided, and the younger Assyria in the north became the most powerful empire of that period under Tiglath Pileser I., B.C. 1100, Ashur-nasir-pal, B.C. 885-60, Shalmaneser II., B.C. 860-25, Tiglath-Pileser III., B.C. 745-27, the Great Sargon, B.C., 722-705, Sennacherib, B.C. 705-681, Esarhaddon, B.C. 681-668, and Ashur-ban-pal, B.C. 668-626. 

In B.C. 609 the capital, Nineveh, was destroyed by Cyaxares the Mede, and Babylon arose again to power under Nebuchadnezzar, B.C. 604-562; this city was destroyed by Cyrus the Persian, B.C. 539.

Assyrian art with its racial influences, religious beliefs and climatic conditions, differs in a remarkable degree from Egyptian art. Though stone is found in Assyria, the great cities were built of brick, no doubt owing to the fact of the arts and civilization coming from Chaldea, where stone was scarce and clay plentiful. Both at Babylon in Chaldea, and Nineveh in Assyria, the traditional type of building was rectangular, with arched openings and vaults, built of sun-dried bricks; the lower part of the wall was covered with large alabaster slabs, carved in low relief with scenes representing the King and his warriors engaged in hunting or fighting (fig. 1). 

The upper part of the wall was in enameled brick or in coloured stucco, with details of the Lotus and Bud, together with the rosette, which was often carried round the archivolt. The representation of the industrial arts and the pursuits of agriculture, which is so admirably illustrated upon the Egyptian reliefs, is entirely absent in Assyria. 

The enameled bricks of Chaldea, were modelled in low relief with enamels of turquoise blue, yellow, white and black, of fine quality and colour, one splendid example is the Frieze of Archers from the Palace of Susa. 

The enameled bricks of Assyria were usually flat, or modelled but slightly, and the enamels were less pure. The external walls were similar to the internal ones, but with larger friezes and bolder reliefs, and usually with religious subjects (fig. 9). 

The portals of the doors were enriched with colossal winged and human headed bulls, of alabaster, finely carved in relief. Typical examples of Assyrian ornament are the Lotus and Bud (figs. 2 and 3), the Patera or Rosette (figs. 6 and 7), and the Horn or Tree of Life (fig 8). 

The Lotus enrichment shows Egyptian influence, and only came into use during the 7th century B.C., when intercourse between the two nations was established. It is differentiated from the Egyptian lotus by its vigorous growth and curved profile, and the geometrical form of the calyx of the flower and bud (fig. 2).

The Anthemion or Hom, with its alternate bud and fir-cone, and with strong lateral markings is beautiful in line and proportion of mass (fig. 3). The Hom is frequently used as a flower on the sacred tree, a form of enrichment that influenced much of the later Persian and Sicilian textile fabrics.